Foreign Language Teaching – A Historical Perspective
The aim of this article is to outline the main features and development of ‘foreign language teaching’ (FLT) in the Western world, from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. The method of analysis will be both diachronic, to get a chronological view of the subject, and synchronic, to portray a full picture of its social and educational context.
Origins of FLT
In classical ages, Greek and Roman times, teaching was entrusted to single philosophers, private pedagogues and educators. In those times, it was more important to wield a sword than to get and enrich one’s own education and knowledge. According to their family social status, children were instructed to learn a job, usually linked to farming, or to learn the use of arms to become a brave warrior. “Thanks to” bad, natural and social phenomena, such as famine and wars, people were obliged to move and change places and, in so doing, to come into contact with different people, cultures and languages.
Following the natural events and the fortunes of war, the languages that accompanied people in their wanderings were Arab, Greek and Latin. During these contacts, whether voluntary or forced, philosophical, scientific and everyday practical knowledge moved from one place to another and made headway. An example and witness of those contacts is the ‘Rosetta Stone’, found in Egypt in 1799 and now on public display at the British Museum in London. It is a granodiorite stele which shows an Egyptian king’s decree (196 BC) in three versions: hieroglyphic, Demotic/Coptic and Greek.
Eastern Sanskrit-Arab sciences, such as medicine, astronomy and maths, were absorbed and assimilated by Greek (a branch of the Arian family). Greeks developed them and added myths, drama and philosophy.
From Greek-Roman times to the Renaissance (200 BC – 1600)
When the Greek power and civilization collapsed (c. 200 BC), the Roman Empire took its heritage and spread it in the western world, from the African Nile to the subpolar regions of Scandinavia. The flourish and death of powers through time meant also flourish and death of languages, both in the oral and written code.
Languages were not taught or studied, they were learned by coming into direct contact with people (native speakers), especially through commerce; future scribes or interpreters were sent directly to the country whose language they wanted to learn. Latin replaced Greek in every field and it became the language of Church and high culture.
Up to the Renaissance, Latin was grammarly (grammar-translation method) studied and it was used to write scientific, philosophical and artistic works. It is worth remembering that in the Middle Ages people used three languages in London: English, which was spoken by illiterate labourers and servants, French, which was the language of the Court and Norman nobles, Latin, which was used by the Clergy. For example, Francis Bacon (1561-1626) wrote his treatises both in English (‘The Advancement of Learning’) and Latin (‘Novum Organum’). Language study and teaching was made by clerics for religious affairs or it was the task of single scholars at court and rich families that became patrons of artists and writers.
End of Latin and the study of other European languages (17th – 19th cent.)
The need to learn foreign languages was feltin Europe in the middle of the 17th century, with the decline of the use of Latin as a means of international communication. French spread from Portugal to Russia, from Sweden to the shores of the Mediterranean. It was learned by interpreters, travellers and privileged classes and it became their status symbol.
From the mid-eighteenth century, albeit to a lesser extent, also English was studied and learned abroad. Analogous to the other knightly arts, like singing, dancing, horse riding and fencing, foreign languages were taught to young rich aristocrats individually by native teachers. These ‘arts’ would become scholastic disciplines almost everywhere in Europe during the 19th century. The process brought about great changes both to the status of languages and to those who taught them, with the inevitable transformations of contents and methodology. Questions about ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘when’ started to loom in the landscape of foreign language teaching.
J. A. Comenius and J. Locke dealt with the appropriate learning of foreign languages, respectively, the former through the practical use of language (Janua Linguarum, 1631) and the latter through the interlinear faithful translation, focussing on grammar, according to Latin morphosyntax. Aristocratic travellers enlarged their linguistic knowledge by the ‘grand tour’, augmenting the rudiments received during their childhood from nurses, preceptors and contact with foreigners.
In the age of the Enlightenment and throughout the 19th century, public schools started to be established in various countries and school attendance gradually became compulsory. This is the time when the contrast between natural ‘use’ of language and reflection-study of prescriptive grammar starts (in the USA they will call it ‘the pendulum syndrome’).
Up to then, according to the study of the classical languages, Greek and Latin, the process was from theory to practice, but now some scholars start ed to propose the other way round, even if they were few and far between. Just to remember some of them: H. Sweet (‘The practical Study of Languages’, 1899), the Danish Otto Jespersen (‘How To Teach a Foreign Language’), Harold E. Palmer who proposed a compromise between the theoretical and intellectual 19th century study of the language and the practical communicative trend of the modernists.
The 20th Century
In the first half of the 20th century, a period of wars, nationalism and isolation, the linguistic methods that derived from the previous glottodidactic and psycholinguistic studies were three:
1. formalistic approach: grammar-translation, use of L1, no communication, only translation;
2. direct method: the use of L1 is forbidden, inductive study of grammar, the teacher must have a native speaker mastery of the language taught (e.g.: the Berlitz method/school);
3. reading method: the language used in teaching is the students’ language and the written language comprehension is the only pursued ability to provide the students with.
The linguist that marked the passage from one century to the other and who laid the foundations of the second half of the 20th century methodology was John Rupert Firth (1890-1960). Modern Linguistics is indebted to him for some fundamental principles such as ‘context of situation’ and ‘context-dependent nature meaning’. Among his students at the University of London were future famous linguists like T. F. Mitchell, Frank R. Palmer and Michael Halliday.
In the second half of the 20th century the learning process follows three different learning models: cognitive, behaviourist, integrated.
The cognitive model is based on the interaction between nature and nurture (Lévi-Strauss, Firth); the behaviourist model (B. F. Skinner) considered the child’s mind a ‘tabula rasa’ on which mental habits are created by a series of stimulus-response-reinforcement (SRR) sequences (pattern drills); the integrated model, whose main representative was Stephen Krashen, the theoretician of the ‘natural approach’, based on the sequence: input – learning (i + 1) – acquisition, (inspired by the Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky’s ZPD, that is, ‘zone of proximal development’).
In the new development of language learning-teaching process, the three main agents, teacher-student-language, pass through different stages and undergo the following changes:
- the student: first, considered a tabula rasa, he is taught with formal, structural, direct approaches; then, put at the center of the teaching process, he is helped by the teacher (now a mediator, a facilitator) with situational, notional-functional, communicative approaches;
- the teacher: first, he is a grammar and culture expert in the formalistic approach; then, he is a language and culture expert in the communicative approach;
- the language: first, it is seen as a complex of rules and words; then, it is seen as an instrument of communication, which the child acquires by an innate ‘linguistic acquisition device’, LAD (N. Chomsky).
- The impact of mass media, the greater movement of people between countries and t direct contact and stays by the young in foreign countries shift the focus from a merely linguistic dimension to a sociolinguistic one. Aware of the fact that mere knowledge of the language in itself, of its morphosyntactic structures and lexis (‘linguistic competence’), is not a sufficient condition to meet the learner’s needs of life and communication, theorists and researchers point out and stress the necessity to provide students with ‘communicative competence’ (D. Hymes). This kind of competence takes into account extra-linguistic, para-linguistic and socio-cultural components and corresponds with the standards fixed by the linguistic ‘threshold levels’ (‘livello soglia’ in Italian, ‘Niveau Seuil’ in French) (J. A. van Ek, J. L. M. Trim, 1991).
What about the US?
The main pedagogic and psycholinguistic currents that come from America and offer an enlargement of perspectives to European glottodidactics are: ‘suggestopedy’ (1978), outlined by the Bulgarian psycholinguist G. Lozanov; the ‘total physical response’ (1965), by J. J. Asher; the ‘community learning’ (1976), by C. A. Curran; the ‘silent method’ (1972), by C. Gattegno; the ‘natural approach’ (1978), by S. Krashen.
At the dawn of the 21st century
From ancient times up to the first half of the 20th century, the interaction between teacher and student was realized with the use of three elements: the teacher’s voice, a piece of chalk and a blackboard. As from the second half of the 20th century, the main teaching aids used in all school subjects, but in particular in foreign language teaching, were didactic electronic and technological tools.
From the appearance of the reel-to-reel tape-recorder, cassette-recorder, language laboratory equipped with interactive individual stations, closed-circuit TV, video-cassette recorder, interactive white-board (IWB), we arrived at the use of IT Science and its main instrument, the computer. Schools, houses, offices were equipped with computers and the digital era boomed.
Can I Teach English Without a Degree?
Teaching English abroad is an incredible chance to change other’s lives—and your own life too—for the better. You’ll get an opportunity to immerse yourself in another culture and see the world, all while helping people advance their careers and achieve their dreams.
But how can you start teaching English as a foreign language? In reality, the job requires certification and often higher education before you can get started. If you are ready to start making a difference, check out what you need to do to qualify to teach English in another country!
TEFL or TESOL Certification
Most institutes hiring English teachers in other countries don’t require any previous higher education or even prior teaching experience. However, they do require proper training. These schools usually require all teachers to obtain TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) or TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) certification.
TEFL or TESOL programs can often be completed online in as little as four weeks. These programs are from nationally-accredited schools and enable those who complete the training to work in countries all over the world. Each school has a slightly different certification approach, but most meet the TESOL or TEFL certification standards of:
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100 hours of coursework
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6-20 hours of practicum teaching and observation with non-native English speakers
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Accredited curriculum
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Learning from an instructor with a master’s degree in TESOL or related field
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Job search guidance for those who complete the program
Choosing the Best Certification for You
Teaching English abroad is a career path that has been around for centuries but has been experiencing rapid growth. There are dozens of options for getting your certification. How do you choose where to complete your training? Here are some tips to follow as you make the decision:
1. TEFL vs. TESOL
First, you need to decide which type of certification is right for you. Though the differences are subtle, TEFL and TESOL certifications offer unique opportunities. A TEFL certificate is best for those wanting to teach only in countries where English is a second language, like Korea or China.
A TESOL certificate is best for anyone who wants to teach in an English-speaking country or a country where English is a second language. For example, someone with a TESOL certificate could stay within their English-speaking country to teach or get hired internationally to teach in another country where English is a second language.
2. Online vs. On-Site
It’s essential to decide where you want to obtain your certification, whether online or on-site. If you’re a hands-on learner who likes interacting with fellow students in person, you probably will be best suited for an on-site certification course. An online course is a convenient option for someone who needs a flexible schedule and doesn’t want to commute to class.
3. Finding a Reputable Program
Once you’ve decided on the type of certification you want and whether you wish to complete the course online or in person, you’ll next need to seek out a reputable program. Though many schools offer excellent training, there are a few that may possibly cheat students out of money. Make sure the school you’re considering has these qualities:
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Accreditation. You’ll need certification from an accredited school if you want to get a job once you’re done.
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Positive online reviews. Reviews will tell you a lot about the school, so make sure to do your homework. Better yet, ask around and talk to someone you know who has gone to the school.
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A transparent website. The certification program should offer transparent pricing information, list their accreditation, and give plenty of details about their courses and school history.
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At least 100 hours of training and 6-20 hours of teaching practice. Proper training and teaching practice are vital for finding a job teaching English abroad. Make sure the program offers adequate hours of coursework and practicum.
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A job network. The best TESOL and TEFL programs help their graduates find a job after obtaining a certificate. Read online reviews and check their website to see if they offer job placement or networking opportunities.
4. Pricing
There is a wide range of TEFL and TESOL programs out there, meaning there is a program for any budget. As with most things, you usually get what you pay for with your program. Most reputable certification courses run the range of $1,000-$2,500.
Any course that costs significantly less than this may not offer the full training necessary to find a job after completion. Make sure the course provides practicum experience and certification hours. (Most programs should include 100 hours of training and 20 hours of teaching practice.)
Getting Started
Teaching English abroad is an exciting pathway, offering a meaningful career in an exotic country. Those who go back to school to get their TESOL or TEFL certification can enjoy new opportunities that take them anywhere in the world.
How to develop and thrive as a teacher without taking CELTA or TESOL
When experience and qualifications are discussed in English language teaching, TEFL, CELTA, TESOL, and DELTA instantly spring to mind. However, the truth is that in poorer or less developed countries there are many unqualified EFL teachers native or non-native, who learn through experience on the job. While some will be better than others, I believe we should not deride these teachers but attempt at every turn to help and encourage them.
It is often the fact that they are victims of circumstances of geography, politics and economics.
Many teachers question the value of courses like CELTA or TESOL in relation to cost. The rationale behind this is that they are already working for companies or institutions which do not pay well because they are not qualified, and because of this, they have neither the financial resources nor the time or even the motivation sometimes to better themselves. It can indeed be a vicious circle.
In my own country, Syria, some years ago, a CELTA course would cost 6-8 months’ salary! Where I currently work, in Turkey, a CELTA course costs as much as 2-3 months’ salary and in some other countries, it might cost a whole year of earnings or even more. This is clearly a de-motivational factor and also very sad as taking a CELTA/TESOL is definitely going to transform the way any teacher teaches.
The lack of initial training courses and qualifications makes it difficult for these teachers to land a teaching job even after years of experience., Employers naturally prefer TEFL-qualified teachers. As Scrivener says in Learning Teaching “Twenty years’ experience can become no more than two years’ experience repeated ten times over.”
These days, many teachers are asked to give a demo lesson when applying for a job. The employer will be looking for many attributes, such as professionalism, a modern approach, creativity, how the teacher interacts with the student, etc. A self-taught teacher may rely on traditional and archaic methods, which may not be sufficient to gain the job.
How to develop and thrive as a teacher without taking CELTA or TESOL
Books
The How to Teach Series by Pearson and the Oxford Scheme for Teacher Education provide titles that cover the language skills (speaking, writing, listening, and reading) and the language systems (grammar, lexis, pronunciation, and discourse). They also provide titles for assessment and teaching with technology. Learning Teaching the book from which I took the above quote, is a must for every English teacher. This book discusses so many techniques and approaches regarding language teaching and presents activities for the language classroom.
Short online courses
Cambridgelms.org provides 23 different courses and gives a certificate for each completed course. The website was known as Cambridge English Teacher, but it was moved to the new platform earlier this year. The courses provide invaluable information, techniques, and activities. There are courses about language systems, language skills, Cambridge Exams such as IELTS and FCE, how to motivate teenagers, teaching with technology, and some others. The courses do not cost much; about 20 USD and access for 12 months is given to finish the course. I took six of those courses, I certainly learned a lot from them, and I list them on my resume when I apply for a new teaching position. I always find that my potential employers are impressed with them.
Coursera and Future Learn also provide courses by respected institutions such as Cambridge University, the British Council and the University of London. They are free to take and can be found here, here, here and here. I took two of these and learned a lot from them.
Seminars, workshops, and webinars
Seminars and workshops are available all year round. They are short, usually held at convenient times, presented by experts, and equip teachers with various techniques, activities, games, and what is trendy in the ELT world nowadays.
Webinars are the same as seminars, but have the advantages of being available to anyone around the world, and they are recorded so that people can watch them days, week, or even years after they are held. I maintain a webinar calendar on a page here. I almost never miss a webinar due to what I can learn from them. Another advantage is that they give a certificate of attendance that you can show to your current
I almost never miss a webinar due to what I can learn from them. Another advantage is that they give a certificate of attendance that you can show to your current employer, or a potential one. As you have guessed, I showed my certificate of attendance to my current employer and they were really amazed by them.
Collaboration in the Teachers’ or Staffroom
Sometimes you do not need to look further than the person who is sitting next to you in the teachers’ room to develop your skills. You and your colleagues could start an ELT book club. Each teacher could choose a book, read it in 2-3 weeks, share interesting ideas either via discussion, or by giving a presentation. Starting a sharing board would serve your development well. You can use a bulletin board to share ELT related materials. I have designed a board and written a post about it, you can read it and download the board from here.
Mentorship
Being mentored by an experienced teacher such as a colleague at your institution, or by a qualified friend or family member can lead to developing various aspects of being a teacher. Some institutions have mentorship programs so both sides can benefit from them. If your institution does not run such a program, you can ask one of your experienced colleagues to mentor you.
Some teachers think that asking to be mentored might expose their weaknesses, however, mentorship should not be perceived in this way, because all teachers have weaknesses (some more serious than others,) and secondly, it is natural to have weaknesses, what matters is that you work on them and turn them into strengths. I have mentored a teacher and I was able to see how she developed. I also learned as much as she did from the experience.
A mentorship can be started by a discussion between both parties.
The mentee expresses his/her teaching beliefs, strengths and weaknesses as a teacher to the mentor. The mentor takes notes and discusses what has been expressed. Then, the mentor can observe the mentee in two lessons, give feedback on the action points, suggest some techniques and readings, observe the mentee again, and discuss the progress. This process should be repeated until the mentee feels confident and has gained from the experience.
Reading Teaching Journals
ETprofessional, IATEFL Voices, EFL Magazine (obviously), ELT Journal, Modern English Teacher, and IH Journal. Some of these journals and magazines are free, and others require a subscription. The articles in the journals focus on various aspects of ELT and also keep you up to date with what is going on currently in the ELT world.
Over to you
How do you continue your professional development?
Which of the suggestions do you think you will start applying?
Do you have any other suggestion for continuing professional development?
Author Bio: Jessi Duffin is the Director of Creative Operations for Big Leap. She is passionate about creative services, spending time with her family and her husky puppy.
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